Uniqueness of Astronomical Principles in Jaina Texts
ABSTRACT
Shrenik Bandi & Anupam Jain
Jaina astronomical contribution is explored with the help of Agamas (canonical texts) in this paper. The system is unique and of great importance for the maker of calendar. It is suggested that the unequal naksatra division in Jaina astronomy is a unique attempt to reconcile the 12 Babylonian Zodiacal constellations with the 27 naksatras.
Jaina astronomical system exhibits certain peculiar characteristics of siddhantic astronomy such as shifting of the first point of Zodiacal circumference from Winter solstice to Vernal equinox. Discovery of the Precession by a Jaina astronomer is also discussed. We have also shown that Jaina calendar is distinct from Vedamga calendar.Key words : Naksatra,Siddhanta Abhijit,Mrgaslrsa, Sapta Rsis or Ursa Major, (Pole Star),Precession, Vedamga Jyotisa. Pahcahga, Tithi, Rdsi.
Abbreviation : Candra prajhapti – CP, Jambudivapannatti – JP, Suryaprajhapti – SP, Tiloyapannatti – TP, Trilokasara – TS, Aryabhatiya – AB, Kalakriyapada – KKP, Gclapada – GOP, Gitikapada – GIP, Vedamga Jyotisa – VJ
Introduction
The Jaina canonical texts are the most original work of its kind. The religious texts that were composed over many centuries deal with a variety of theological, mathematical and astronomical topics. These texts are probably of 500 BC -200 AD. It is claimed by the western astronomers that Siddhantas were taken over by the Greeks from Ptolemy’s Almagest of second century AD.
However, it is wrong to assume that there was complete lack of knowledge in the field of astronomy in ancient India in Jaina School Allen R. H., Star Names and their Meanings, second reprint, intro., 1936 and Abhyankar, K. D., The New Challenges in Astrophysics, New Delhi, 1997, pp. 33-52..
In ancient India, the knowledge of astronomy was considered as one of the principal accomplishments of Jaina priests and scholars. Supreme importance was given to the astronomy among all the branches of knowledge during the Jaina period (500 BC – 200 BC)K.D. Abhyankar, Pre-Siddhdntic Astronomy, Hyderabad, 1996, p.3. and A.A. McDonnel, 1900..
Chinese records describe astronomical observations supposed to have been made in the 25th century BC but some of the Indian sacred books including Jaina texts refer to the astronomical knowledge having been already acquired several centuries before this time.Arthur Berry, A Short History of Astronomy, John Murray- London, 1898, p. 2.
Jaina Period
A council of monks in Pataliputra (3rd C. BC) collected the Jaina canonical literature comprising of Twelve ahgas and fourteen (old scriptures)Sikdar, J. C., Studies in Bhagvati Sutra, pp. 31-32. and thus established a fragmentary canon called ‘Siddhanta’ (system).
Jaina canonical texts were preserved in the memories by Jaina monks until their present recessing was redacted in the council of Vallabhl under the presidency of Devarddhi Gani Jacobi, H., Kalpa Sutra, S.B.E., 1884, 5th Lecture, p. 269.during 454 AD. S.K. JainJain, Subodh Kumar, Chronology of Ancient Jaina Conferences, The Jaina Antiquary, Vol. 27. No. 1, 1975, pp. 31-34. has given the chronological order of various Jaina councils.
According to another traditionSikdar, J. C. Op. Cit., pp. 31-32., Jaina canon is said to have been redaeted in the council of Mathura (467 AD) under the presidency of SkandilacaryaIbid. p. 50. The texts were memorized by Jaina monks before they were recorded in Vallabhl councilJacobi H. Kalpa Sutra. SBE 5th lecture, p. 269, Sikdar, J.C. op cit., p. 50. And Bose, D.M., Sen, S.N. and Subarayappa B.V., A Concise History of Science in India., p. 80. (454 AD). N.C. ShastriShastri Nemichandra, Bharatiya Jyotisa, Bharatiya JndnapithaNew Delhi, 1973, pp. 59-63. considered, prajhapti to be a work contemporary of Vedamga Jyotisa (500 BC).
According to BoyerBoyer, C.B., A History of Mathematics, 1968, p. 23. the present recession of Jaina canon may in a broader sense be assigned to the fifth or sixth century AD. PingreePingree, D., Mesopotamian Origin of Ancient Indian Mathematical Astronomy, JHA, IV, 1973 pp.1-12. was of the opinion that the Jaina canon belongs to a far older period than the early sixth century AD. Surya prajhapti, one of the principal sources of Jaina astronomy, is also believed to have been written a few years before Christian eraBose, D. M., Sen, S. N. and Subarayappa B.V. op. cit, p. 80.. This was followed by Jyotisakarandaka and Gargan Samhita.
According to Srinivasiengar, Surya prajhapti and prajhapti belong to a period of about 500 BC and Sutra and Anuyogadvara Sutra belong to about 300 BCSrinivasiengar, C.N., A History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, 1967, p. 20.. According to some other scholars Bose, D.M., Sen S.N., and Subarayappa, B.V. op. cit., p. 158., Bhagavatl, Uttaradhyayana and Anuyogadvara Sutra belong to about first century BC, Samavayamga, to about fourth century BC.
According to H.P. BhattBhatt, H.P., Bharatiya Jyotisa Sastra, Vol. 3, (In Gujarati), 1973, p. 233., Surya prajhapti belongs to 400 BC and Candra prajhapti to 200 BC. We also find references of nine planets,yugas,daksinayana and uttarayana, solar and lunar eclipses in the literature (1000 BC- 400 BC). The Jainas regarded mathematics to be an integral part of their religion and even went to the extent of describing as Ganitanuyoga11.
In another classification Ganita is placed as a part of Karananuyoga and Drvyanuyoga. Now we are listing the Jaina astronomers and their major contributions.
Famous Jaina Astronomers and their contribution
| Name | Work | Contribution |
| Vriddhagarga (500 B.C.) | He worked in Naksatra and saptarsis | Precession phenomenon |
| Rsiputra(According toCatalogus Catalogorum | Nimitta Sastra, Samhita Grantha | Work on Phalita Jyotisa,18 Varahamihira mentioned his name |
of 1121 yojanas from the celestial axis the of Jambudvipa45. The lunar and the solar zodiac ( Caraksetra) have a stretch of 51048 yojanas. Out of this 180 yojanas are covered in the Jambu by the sun and the moon and the Lavana ocean has a stretch of 510 yojanas.
All the astral bodies have been regarded hemispherical, with spherical side towards the earth44. The diameter of the moon is ff yojanas, where as that of the sun is H yojanas45. Two types of Rahus are Dina and Parva Some preceptors have described the phases of the Moon due to the Dina Rahu and others have recognized them on the basis of the motion of the Moon. The diameter of the Rahu and Ketu each is slightly less than one yojana41. The yuga (era) of the five years starts with the sun and the moon on the Abhijit at the north solstice48.
Distinct feature of Jaina Astronomy
The close Indo-Greek contact of several centuries seems to have brought an effective exchange of existing knowledge between the nations. the versatile compiler of 5677 verses of the 49 and composer of about 7000 ( Curni) verses on the Kasayapahuda states that the sourcematerial on planetary motion had become extinct in course of time51. The revolutionary work of Aryabhata-I was a natural emergence of the genius out of dilemma. Shukla52 has found parallelism between Samskrta verses of Aryabhata I and Prakrta verses of the commentator. Bhaskara-I, as well as those of the Yativrsabha, Virasena and Nemicandra.
A few more could be found comparable as exposed by H.L. Jain. The concept adopted by the Jaina School from the Vedamga Jyotisa, with a different solstice system changed after a lapse of about 1000 years. First we mark the difference in basic time units.
Interpretation
One year is of twelve months, one month is of thirty days, one day is of sixty nadls, and one nadi is of sixty vinadikas. One is of sixty big syllables or six pranas. Like this time division there is the space division through the bhaganas.
The indivisible time taken as transgression of a material ultimate particle of a nearby stationed space-point is called an instant ( The bhinna muhurta is a muhurta less than an instant. A day is of thirty muhurtas and a paksa (fortnight) is of fifteen days. A month is of two fortnights, a season is of two months, an ayana is of three seasons, a year is of two ayanas and a yuga is of five years.
However, the periodic process of the nature remained an unchanged concept with a nominal variation. Now we give two sloka from Non-Jaina source :
Interpretation
Half the yuga is utsarpinl and after which the remaining half of the yuga is avasarpinl. Middle part of the yuga is like the full moon and is known to be susama. The beginning and the end of the yuga is known to be Regarding the conjunctions of the periods of the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, especially those of the sun and the moon, the following is important:
Interpretation
The solar year is the solar revolution. The number of lunar months are the conjunctions of the sun and the moon. (These conjunctions are equivalent to the differences of the solar and lunar revolutions). The conjunctions of the Sun and Earth are (civil) days. The rotations of the Earth are sidereal days.
Interpretation
On the full moon day of the Asadha (month), the yuga of five years comes to an end. At the conjunction of the moon with the Abhijita (constellation) on the Sravana Krsna Pratipada, the yuga begins. (Note : This ay ana system in different from that defined in the Vedamga The Meru (mountain) is regarded as a celestial axis from where are measured the linear distances of various heavenly bodies in units known as 57 and Aryabhata I was no exception to the conventional procedure.
The Meru, exactly one yojana in measure, lies at the centre of the Nandana vana. It is full of gems, bright and circular throughout. It is projected among the Himavata. The diameters of the earth, the sun, the moon, and the Meru are 1050, 4410, 315, and 1 yojanas respectively.
From the above comparison, it appears that both the scholars obtained the knowledge about the Kalpa and the Meru from some ancient traditional sources Yativrsabha has faithfully quoted the source works – Aggayani, Ditthivada, Parikamma, Muldyara, Loyavinichaya, Loyavibhaga and Lagaini from where he could reproduce some of the difficult results whose authenticity was in warranted58.
Jaina Cosmos
The Jaina school has clearly differentiated between all empty space and non-empty space. In the works on “Karananuyoga” descriptions of various sub universes are available . It is important to note how the various position of the heavenly bodies were depicted in the Jaina school. Concepts were the same, but the frame of reference to the celestial coordinates was different59.
Unequal Naksatras Division in Jaina Astronomy
1. The unequal naksatras division60 in Jaina astronomy was an attempt to reconcile the 12 Babylonian Zodiacal constellations (Sidereal Rasis) with 27 naksatras division of Indian astronomy.
2. The naksatras were reduced to 27 for mathematical reasons. In doing so Abhijita (a Lyrae) naksatra was dropped. Original Abhijita and other naksatras were readjusted.
3. As the zodiacal constellations are not of equal size, it was necessary to make the naksatras division also unequal.
4. Jaina astronomers who believed in simplicity made the smaller naksatras of 15 muhutras and large naksatras of 45 muhiitras.
Motion of Astral Bodies in Jaina System
Due to the assumption of the existence of two Suns and two Moons61, one in each half, it appears as if the other symmetrical half with the same events and motion was a fictitious display for some mathematical convenience, though not clear so far.
The whole of celestial path has been divided into 109800 celestial parts. The half of the path is covered by one Sun, one Moon and its family in 24 hours or in thirty muhurtas. The other half path is covered simultaneously in opposite sense thus only 54900 parts are needed for the practical purpose of a calendar.
The points which reflect the development of the Jaina Astronomy Independently.
1. Jaina astronomy follows five years yuga calendar of Vedamga Jyotisa, but the year starts from summer solstice instead of winter solstice.
2. The naksatras are counted from Sravana instead of Dhanistha, which fixes the epoch of Jaina astronomy to round about 500 B.C.
3. The two parts of the year Uttarayana called Utsarpinl (the rising coil) and Daksinayana called Apasarpini (the descending coil) are mentioned in the Jaina system.
4. They made the naksatras of unequal arcs as there were no relation between yogatara (main star) of the naksatras.
5. The Jaina astronomers are also credited with the introduction of the concept of Meru mountain and the flat earth. Aryabhata-l later rejected the idea of flat earth but identified Meru with terrestrial north pole.
6. There are references to the variations of the shadow length of the gnomon during the course of the day as well as during the course of the year.
7. Planets are specifically mentioned in the Jaina astronomical literature. We find reference of Vlthls (lane) of Venus and yugas of (Jupiter) and Sani (Saturn).
The following important Peculiarities of the Jaina Astronomy
1. In Vedamga Jyotisa there is no account of Abhijit (a Lyrae) but Jaina astronomical system is based on twenty eight This might suggest that the antiquity of it may be antedated to that of Brahmana.
2. Week days are not mentioned in Jaina canonical texts. Atharva Veda Jyotisa gives an explicit reference to seven days of the week. It suggests that Jaina astronomical texts might belong to the period prior to Atharva Veda Jyotisa62.
3. The system of reckoning “Ayana” (half the annual course of the Sun) in Vedamga Jyotisa is different from that of Jaina astronomy. Nemicanda Jain also advocates that Jaina astronomical system grew independently63.
Precession of Earth Axis
According to Vriddhagarga the movement of the helps us in finding the effect of precession on the earth axis and its period. According to Jaina period Thuban (a- Draconis) was the Pole Star. The fact was also pointed out by Jacobi64 (1894 AD).
It is known to the modern astronomy that due to the precession of the axis of the earth, the north celestial pole (NCP) executes a circle in space moving at the rate of 1° in 71 years. B.C. Hipparchus an astronomer from Greece was the first person who discovered the phenomenon of precession in 2nd century AD.
Discovery of Precession by Indian Astronomer Vriddhagarga
It appears that Vriddhagarga the famous Jaina astronomer had already discovered the phenomenon of precession around 500 BC near the end of the Vedamga Jyotisa period. However, the later astronomers did not understand his terminology. Our argument is related to the Sapta. or Laukika era which is attributed to Vriddhagarga65. Now, according to Vriddhagarga the sages ( Rsis) resided in the Magha naksatra only. Pandit Venkatachamay be right and we may actually fix the time of Vriddhagarga as about 500 B.C.
Opinion of M. N. Saha
It was a remarkable achievement by the Jaina system67. To avoid the change caused by precession the Siddhantic Indian astronomers decided to measure the celestial longitudes from a fixed point on the ecliptic which is called Mesadi or Asvinayadi.
Jaina Calendar System
According to Jaina since the length of a day is 12 hours or 15 the same sun after making day over Bharata in the southern quarter cannot reappear on the following morning as it still has three quarters to travel. To overcome this difficulty, the theory supposes two similar suns, Bharat and Airavata, separated from each other by half the orbit.
In this process each sun makes day over Bharatavarsa on alternate days. This is given in the prajhapti. For calendar purpose the Tiloyapannattl and the Surya Prajhapti as well as the Trilokasara adopted the five year cycle beginning with the summer solstice when the full moon takes place at the Abhijita6*.
Besides, it is worth noting that Jaina five-year fixed calendar is distinct from Vedamga Jyotisa calendar69 in some factors given below:
1. Winter solstice lies in Dhanistha in Vedamga Jyotisa calendar and it lies at the beginning of Abhijit ( aLyrae) in Jaina Calendar.
2. Lunar months are amavasyanta (ending with new moon days) in VJ calendar and piirnimdnta (ending with full-moon days) in Jaina calendar. The year in VJ calendar commences on the first day of lunar bright half of Mdgha (eleventh month of Hindu calendar) whereas in Jaina calendar, the year commence on the first day of lunar dark half of Sravana (fifth month of Hindu calendar).
3. Longitudes of sun and moon have been measured in terms of naksatra only in VJ calendar, but in muhurtas of arc (819 H muhurtas of arc = 360°)
starting from zero at the beginning of Abhijit ( Lyrae) naksatra only in the Jaina calendar.
4. According to Vedic calendar, seasons are found to begin with the spring70 but according to Jaina calendar, seasons commence with rainy season with Asadha as the first month, though the five year cycle commences on the first day of the dark half of Sravana.
5. In VJ calendar, only twenty-seven naksatras (asterisms) are taken into account but Jaina’s calculations are based on unequal amplitude system of twenty-eight naksatras, Abhijita {a Lyrae) being the extra naksatra and strangely enough it also heads the list of naksatras.
6. In VJ calendar, the days were called after the names of 71, but in Jaina calendar, the cycle of days was reduced from twenty-seven to fifteen.
7. In VJ calendar we find no classification of naksatras regarding their conjunctions with moon at various syzygies (opposite points in the orbit) but we find in Jaina calendar that naksatras have been classified into groups. Conclusions
We have shown that Jaina astronomy grew independently as the Jaina scholars of those times had good knowledge of heavenly bodies and their motions. This made astronomical system unique. M.D. Srinivas is of the opinion that the prayojana (purpose) of the Jyotisa sastra having been thus understood by Jaina astronomers, they put in their best efforts in making accurate observations.
The fact that these accomplishments was made long befare the advent of sophisticated aids like telescopes & computers & the developed mathematical techniques makes them more astounding. Indian ancient text of Prakrta remained unexposed to western scholars due to sevral reasons the most prominent among them the fact that the history was written by the Europeans who because of their strong bias against Indians either could not or did not heed to the Jain astronomy. However the truth remain that no attempt to trace the history of ancient Indian astronomy ever completes without referring to the Jaina literature.
References
17. Muni Nathamal, Jaina Darsana Ke Maulika Tattva, Bhdga -1, Curu (Rajasthan), p. 71.
18. N.C. Shastri, Bharatiya Jyotisa, Varanasi, 1979, pp. 106-107.
19. Agarcanda Nahata, Acarya Bhadrabahu Aura Haribhadra ki Ajndta Racanden, Jaina Vidyd Kd Sanmskrtika Avaddna, Curu, (Rajasthan), 1976, pp. 107-108.
20. Ibid, p. 112.
21. L.C. Jain, Jaina Vidyd Kd Samskrtika Avaddna, Curu – (Rajasthan), 1976, p. 140.
22. L. C. Jain, op. cit., p. 141 and Agarcanda Nahata, op. cit., pp. 108-109.
23. N. C. Shastri, op. cit., p. 121.
24. Ibid, p. 132.
25. Refer Trilokasdra.
26. N.C. Shastri, op. cit., p. 140
27. Ibid, p. 142.
28. L.C. Jain, op. cit., p. 141.
29. N. C. Shastri, op. cit., p. 141.
30. Ibid, p. 144.
31. Ibid., p. 144 and also A. Jain S: me 7-n ‘: : n Jaina Mathematical Works, Ganita Bharatl, Vol. 4 Nos. 1-2, 1982, p. 70.
32. N.C. Shastri, op. cit.. pp. 1 — 1-5
33. Ibid, p. 145.
34. N.C. Shastri, op. cit.. p 1-5.
35. Ibid, pp. 154-55 and also 1982, A- Jain op. cit. p. 69.
36. Ibid, p. 155.
37. Nemi chandra shastri. 5n:;n; : : n; nasi. p. 109
38. Tiloyapannattl. Pt. II. Sholapur, 1951, introduction, p. 3.
39. T.P. 458.
40. Jain. L.C.. Kinematics of the Sun aod the Moon in Tiloyapannattl, Tulsl Prajnd, J.V.B., Jan.-Mar., 1975, pp. 60-67.
41. For comparison with Babylonian, Greek, Egyptian & Hindu astronomy the following work is referred: Neugebauer, 0.. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, Providence, 1957.
42. Trilokasdra, ch. 4., 362.
43. Ibid, 345.
44. Ibid., 336. and Tiloyapannattl, 7.37.
45. Tiloyapannattl, 7.39. For the diameter of the sun in China, cf. Needham and Ling, pp. 300, 332, 573(c).
46. In Tiloyapannattl, The details of the motion of the Dina Rdhu and Parva Rdhu are given in the verses; 7.205 to 7.216.
47. Cf. the above ref..
48. Tiloyapannattl, 7.530.
49. Yativrsabha -Tiloyapannattl, Pt. I (1943), II (1951) Sholapur. The chapter VII contains 619 verses in astronomy.
50. Yativrsabha, Kasayapahuda sutta- Curni sutra, Vlra Sasana Samgha, Calcutta, 1955.
51. Cf. TP, 7.458
52. Cf. 6, op. cit., There are more parallel verses in TP to those in Bhdskara -1 commentary.
53. Cf. 1 TP, op. cit., 4.285-289.
54. Cf. AB, KKP, v. 9. The Indian idea of the Kalpa were introduced in China as well. Science and
Civilization in China, Needham, J. and Ling ,W., Cambridge, 1959, vol. Ill, pp. 30 and 406 ff.
55. Cf. AB, KKP, v. 5.
56. TP, 7.530.
57. Cf. TPG,pp. 18-20.
58. Cf. TP, pt. II, Introduction, pp. 11-12.
59. Cf. Lishk, S.S. And Sharma, S. D., 1977, bibliography.
60. K.D. Abhyankar, Probable rationale for unequal naksatras division in Jaina astronomy IJHS, 2002, pp. 31-36.
61. Trilokasdra, 4. 346.
62. Sharma C.L. and Dvivedi, on Atharva Veda Jyotisa.
63. Jain Nemicanda, Jain Pancdtiga, Vol. 8.
64. H. Jacobi., On the date of Rgveda (Transi. from German) the India Antiquary, 23, pp. 154-159.
65. K. D. Abhyankar, The Jaina and Buddhist – Purdnic period, Pre Siddhdntic Astronomy, Hyderabad, pp. 136-139.
66. Abhayankar, K.D. Pre Siddhantic Astronomy, Hydrabad, p. 138
67. Saha and Lahari 1956.
68. Padmavathamma and Jain, L.C., Arhat Vacana, Vol. 18, Indore, 2006, pp 73-84.
69. Dvivedi, Sudhakar, Jyotisa Vedamga, 1906.
70. Dixit, S. B. Bharatiya Jyotisa Sastra, 1969 p.25 (See TB. 1.1.3.6.7).
71. Sharma, S.D. and Lishk, S.S., 1975, Hindu Naksatra, The Astrological Magazine, Vol. 64. No. 8, pp. 619-622.
Received : 28.02.2014
