Description of Organs of Knowledge (Pramānās)
Tattvārta Sūtrā 1.6 has stated that the knowledge (of seven reals and six realities) is acquired through organs of knowledge (Pramāṇas) and standpoints (Nayas).
The right knowledge is called the organ of valid knowledge (Pramāṇas). In the texts of logic, the organ of knowledge has been defined as the cognition which has a nature of determination of the self and novel objects.
There are two kinds of organs of knowledge:
| (1) Direct (Pratyakṣa) | (2) Indirect (Parokṣa) |
Indirect Organ of Knowledge (Paroksa Pramāna)
The knowledge which is acquired through the instmmentality of senses and mind is called indirect organ of knowledge.
It has two varieties:
| (1) sensory knowledge | (2) vocable knowledge |
The sensory knowledge has four varieties:
| (1) Apprehension | (2) Speculation |
| (3) Perceptual judgement | (4) Retention and Record |
Apprehension (Avagraha)
The general grasping of the object at the first contact of senses and the object is known as conation (Darṡana). The apprehension is the first grasping of object after the conational grasping. For example, to know through the sense of sight, “It is white in colour”.
Speculation (īhā)
The effort to know specifics of the object grasped through the apprehension process is known as speculation. For example, the white colour grasped through apprehension may be that of a flag or a bird.
Perceptual Judement (Avāya)
The perceptual judgement is the accurate knowledge about an object by specific decision
on the basis of speculative process. For example, one knows that the white bird is duck only by observing its flying wings.
Retention and Record (Dhāraṇā)
The retention and record is not to forget what has been known through the above stages.
There are twelve kinds of objects of each of these forms of sensory knowledge:
| (1) many in number | (2) many in kinds |
| (3) quick | (4) hidden |
| (5) unexpressed | (6) lasting and their opposites like |
| (7) one | (8) one kind |
| (9) slow | (10) revealed |
| (11) expressed | (12) transient |
The grasping of many or more objects is knowledge of many (by number or mass). For example, grasping of army or forest as one group is the knowledge of many. The grasping of many different classes of objects like elephants, horses or mangoes etc. is the knowledge of many kinds. The grasping of moving object quickly is the quick knowledge.
It is like knowing of a moving train. The grasping of the whole object by observing it in part is the knowledge of the hidden. For example, knowing of elephant in the tank by seeing its trunk only. The grasping of implied sense even without expressing it is called knowledge of the unexpressed. The grasping of an object as seen before for long time is the lasting knowledge.
Similarly, their opposites should also be defined. Thus, the apprehension has twelve varieties. The other three, speculation, perceptual judgement and retention have also these twelve varieties each. Thus, there are 48 kinds of these four forms of sensory knowledge. Each of these knowledge occurs through five senses and mind, i.e. six factors. Thus, multiplying 48 by 6, the sensory knowledge gets 288 varieties.
There are two kinds of apprehension
- (1) distinct apprehension (Arthāvagraha),
- (2)indistinct apprehension (Vyanjanāvagraha).
The above 288 varieties refer only to the distinct apprehension which is defined as to grasp the object distinctly so that the knowledge may follow other three steps. The indistinct apprehension is to grasp the object indistinctly so that there may not be other steps to get accurate knowledge.
This does not occur through the sense of sight and mind. This occurs only through the rest of the four senses. Hence, it will have 12 x 4 = 48 varieties. Accordingly, the sensory knowledge will have 288 + 48 = 336 varieties as below.
- (a)Varieties with respect to distinct apprehension 288
- (b)Varieties with respect to indistinct apprehension 48
When the indistinct apprehension occurs repeatedly, it turns into the distinct apprehension. Then, the other three steps could follow. It is like the drying of 1-2 drops of water when dropped on dry earthen pot. However, if the water drops fall continuously on it, the pot becomes wet. This illustrates the distinct apprehension.
Vocable Knowledge (Sruta-jnāna)
The vocable knowledge occurs with precedence of sensory knowledge. It does not occur without it.
The vocable knowledge has two varieties :
- (1) Tingual (alphabetical, Akṣarātmaka),
- (2) non-lingual (symbolic, Anakṣarātmaka).
The twenty varieties of the vocable knowledge are included in both of these varieties.
Out of these twenty kinds of vocable knowledge, the first two are non-lingual while the rest 18 are lingual. They are detailed in Dhavalā 13 and GJ verses 317-349.
The Paryāya (least) vocable knowledge is the vocable knowledge which occurs preceded by the touch-sense-based sensory knowledge of the fine-temporally non-completioned generalbodied being (Nigoda, Tabdhya-paryāptaka) at the first samaya of its birth.
No living being does have lesser vocable knowledge than this. Thus, this ‘Paryāya’ knowledge is always without any (karmic) obscuration. Had there been karmic obscuration even at this stage, the generalbodied being would have been devoid of knowledge and would be non-living.
When there are innumerable times six-fold increments (infiniteth, innumerableth and numerableth part increments and infinite, innumerable and numerable times increments) in this least vocable knowledge, there is the Akṣara (lingual, alphabatical) vocable knowledge.
The innumerable varieties of vocable knowledge between Paryāya and Akṣara vocable knowledge are termed as Paryāya Samāsa . Thus, the two vocable knowledges of Paryāya and Paryāya Samāsa are non-lingual while the other 18 are linguals. The Paryāya vocable knowledge is infiniteth part of the Akṣara knowledge.
The alphabetical vocable knowledge (Akṣara) is the base of all the Ungual vocable knowledge. When the Akṣara knowledge is increased to numerable alphabets by one-fold increment in alphabets, it becomes the Pada (vocable knowledge).
The numerable varieties of knowledge beyond Akṣara and below Pada knowledges are known as Akṣara-Samāsa knowledge.
There are three types of syllables or meaningful words (Padas) :
| (1) gistful syllable (artha-pada) | (2) measured syllable (Pramāṇa pada) |
| (3) medium syllable (Madhyama pada) |
The syllable consisting of indefinite alphabets like ‘Read the book’ carrying a specific meaning is called ‘gistful syllable (Artha-pada). This form of syllable also includes the alphabetical group involving suffixes indicating verbs (Tiganta) and nouns (Subanta).
The measured syllable consists of definite and measured number of alphabets or letters in different metres like ‘Namah Ṡri Vardhamānāya (8 letters in a quarter-metre – Bowings to the Lord Vardhamāna). The medium syllable consists of 16,34,83,07,888 (Sixteen arab, 34 crore, 83 lac, 7 thousand and eight hundred and eighty eight) letters. The measure of vocable knowledge is expressed through this middle syllable only.
When there is increase of numerable thousand padas with gradual one-fold increments by one letter, one has the vocable knowledge of ‘Sanghāta’ (combination of syllables-padas). The vocable knowledge consisting of the types of knowledge beyond syllabular knowledge and below ‘Sanghāta’ knowledge is called ‘Pada-samāsa’ knowledge (i.e. = pada + 1 —> Sanghāta -1).
The Sanghāta vocable knowledge is the collective form of non-repeated measured syllables describing one of the destinities out of the four ones. When there is numerable thousand times gradual increase in the Sanghāta knowledge through one-fold increment of letters each time, there is ‘Pratipatti’ vocable knowledge which describes all the four destinities.
The vocable knowledge of Sanghāta – Samāsa is the intermediate knowledge beyond Sanghāta and below Pratipatti (Sanghāta+1 —>Pratipatti-1).
When there is numerable thousand times gradual increase in the Pratipatti knowledge through one-fold increment of letters each time, one gets the vocable knowledge of Anuyoga (Exposition) which describes the fourteen investigation doors (Mārgaṇās).
The varieties of vocable knowledge between the Pratipatti and Anuyoga knowledge (i.e. Pratipatti+1 —> Anuyoga – 1) is known as Pratipatti Samaṡa.
The Prābhṛta- Prābhṛta vocable knowledge is there when there is numerable thousand times increase in Anuyogas through one-fold increment of letters-each time.
The varieties of vocable knowledge beyond Anuyoga and below Prābhṛta- Prābhṛta knowledgs is known as Anuyoga-Samāsa (Anuyoga + 1 —> Prābhṛta- Prābhṛta – 1).
Similarly, when there is gradual increase upto 24 Prābhṛta – Prābhṛta through gradual one fold increment of letters each time, there is the vocable knowledge of Prābhṛta.
The intermediate forms of knowledge beyond Prābhṛta – Prābhṛta and below Prābhṛta (PP+1 —» P-1) are known as Prābhṛta-Prābhṛta-Samāsa.
The vocable knowledge of Vastu (sections) consists of 20 Prābhṛtas. The intermediate forms of knowledge between Prābhṛta and Vastu are known as Prābhṛta samāsa knowledge.
When there is gradual increase in Vastu knowledge upto 195 times, we have ‘Pūrva’ (Pre-canonical) knowledge. The intermediate forms of knowledge between Vastu and Pūrva
and known as ‘Vastu-Samasa’.
When the ‘Pūrva knowledge’ gradually increases and reaches a stage below the total vocable knowledge, this intermediate state is known as ‘Pūrva Samāsa (Pūrva+1 —> total vocable knowledge -1).
Thus, there are 18 lingual forms of vocable knowledge. These are also called ‘psychical vocables’. The lingual vocable knowledge is in the form of twelve limbs or texts (Angas) and many secondary texts (Angabāhyas-described later). The total number of medium syllables in these limbs is 1,12,83,58,005 (1 Arab, 12 crore, 83 lac, 58 thousand and five). This fact is elaborated below:
Twelve Primary Canonical Scriptures (Angās)
(1)Acārānga (describing Monastic Conduct) has 18000 padas. It describes the monastic conduct.
(2)Sūtrakṛtānga (describing Doctrines) has 36000 padas. It describes the own and alien doctrines alongwith practical forms of religion in brief.
(3)Sthānānga (describing Numerated Stationing) has 42000 padas. It has categorised all different entities or realities under numeration from one to ten.
(4)Samavāyānga (describing Numerated Categories) has 1,64,000 padas. It describes all the possible categories of different entities / realities indicating mutual similarities among them.
(5)Vyakhya Prajnapti (describing Enunciation of Explanations) has 2,28,000 padas. It deals with answers of 60,000 questions (of Gautama) by Lord Mahāvīra.
(6)Jnātṛ katha (describing Religious Stories of the Jnātṛs) has 5,56,000 padas. It deals with the stories of chief disciples (Gaṇadharas) etc. and the glory of the Tirthankaras.
(7)Upāsakadhyayana (Conduct of Votaries) has 11,70,000 padas. It deals with the conduct of the votaries.
(8)Anta-kṛddaṡānga (describing the Decad of World Terminators) has 23,28,000 padas. It deals with the stories of the decad of saints who attained salvation after bearing intense inflictions in the period of each Tīrthankara.
(9)Anuttaropa-pādika Daṡānga (describing the Decad of Anuttara-boms) has 92,44,000 padas. It deals with the decad of saints who were bom in the Anuttara abodes of the heavens after bearing the intense infliction in the period of each Tīrthankara.
(10)Praṡna Vyākaraṇa (Elaboration of Prognostics) has 93,16,000 padas. It deals with futurology and prognostics. It describes the losses and gains on the basis of the nature of prognostic indications like time (Naṣta, Muhūrta) clenched hands (Muṣti), anxiety and loss etc.
(11)Vipāka Sūtra (describing Karmic Fmition) has 1,84,00,000 padas. It deals with the effects of Karmic fmitions in detail.
(12)Dṛṣtivāda (describing Discourses on Doctrines) has 1,08,68,56,005 padas. It deals with the 363 wrong doctrines and their logical refutation. It has five varieties.
| (i)Parikarma (Mathematics and Astronomy) | (ii)Sūtra (Doctrines-in-Brief) |
| (iii)Prathamānuyoga (Biography) | (iv)Pūrvagata (Pre-canonical Texts) |
| (v)Cūlika (Appendices) |
The Parikarma deals with formulae of mathematics and astronomy. It has five varieties.
(i)Candra-prajnapti (Enunciation on Moon) has 36,05,000 padas. It deals with all kinds of details about the moon.
(ii)Sūrya-prajnapti (Enunciation on Sun) has 50,03,000 padas. It deals with all the details about the solar world.
(iii)Jambūdvīpa-prajnapti (Enunciation on Jambūdvīpa) has 3,25,000 padas. It deals with all the details regarding Jambūdvīpa.
(iv)Dvīpa-Sāgara-prajnapti (Enunciation on island-continents and Oceans) has 52,36,000 padas. It deals with all the islands, continents and oceans (excluding Jambūdvīpa).
(v)Vyākhyā prajnapti (Enunciation of Explanations) has 84,36,000 padas. It deals with the liberatable, non-liberatable, gaplessly liberated and successively liberated living beings and the like.
The second variety of Dṛṣtivadais called ‘Sutra’ (Scriptures on Doctrines) which describes the presentation and refutations of 363 wrong doctrines. It has 88 lac padas.
In the Prathamānuyoga (Biographies), there is the description of the biographies of 63 great personages (Ṡalākā puruṣās). It contains 5000 padas. The fourth variety of Dṛṣtivāda is Pūrva (Pre-canonical Texts). There are fourteen Pūrvas containing 95,50,00,005 padas. Their description is given below :
(i)Utpāda Pūrva (Pre-canon on Origination-triad) has one crore padas and it describes the origination, decay and permanence of each of the reality.
(ii)Agrāyaṇīya Pūrva (Pre-canon on Top Doctrines) has ninety six lac padas and it deals with 700 good and bad standpoints (nayas) and five extensive existents etc.
(iii)Vīrya Pravāda (Discourses on Potency or Energy) has 70 lac padas and it deals with the potency of the self, others and qualities etc.
(iv)Asti-nāsti-Pravāda (Discourses on Relativism) has 60 lac padas. It deals with the seven fold predications under the septadic doctrine (Saptabhangī).
(v)Jnāna Pravāda (Discourses on Knowledge) contains 99,99,999 (one crore less by one) padas. It deals with all kinds of knowledge.
(vi)Satya Pravāda (Discourses on Truth) has 1,00,00,006 padas. It deals with the pronunciation of words, ten kinds of truth and non-truth, linguistics and language etc.
(vii)Atma Pravāda (Discourses on the Soul) has 26 crore padas. It deals with the soul in all its aspects.
(viii)Karma Pravāda (Discourses on Karma) has 1 crore 80 lac padas. It describes Karmology in all its aspects.
(ix)Pratyākhyāna Pravāda (Discourses on Renunciation) has 84 lac padas. It deals with various types of renunciation, carefulness (Samitis), self-guards (guptis) and the like with respect to substantivity, location, time and body-structure etc.
(x)Vidyānuvāda (Discourses on Learnings) has 1 crore 10 lac padas. It deals with 700 small learnings like Anguṣtha senā etc., 500 great learnings like Rohinī etc. and Mantra-tantrā etc.
(xi)Kalyāṇavāda (Discourses on Welfare) has 26 crore padas. It deals with the five auspicious events related with the Tirthankaras and sixteen-fold reflective practices or factors etc. for Tīrthankaraship.
(xii)Prāṇāvāya (Science of Vitalities and Health) has 13 crore padas. It deals with the eight-fold science of Ayurveda and related subjects.
(xiii)Kriyā viṡāla (Science of Arts and Crafts) has nine crore padas. It deals with 72 arts of men like museology, meterology etc. and 64 arts of women and other subjects.
(xiv)Triloka-bindu-sāra (Essence of the Universe and its Top) has 12 crores 57 lacs padas. It deals with the nature of the universe, abode of the liberated and thirty six special activities (Parikarmas) etc.
All these fourteen pre-canons have 10, 14, 8, 18, 12, 16, 20, 30, 15, 10, 10, 10, 10 and 12 sections (Vastus) in order. In other words, there are 195 sections in all the pre-canons. Each of the sections has 20 prābhṛtas (chapters). Thus, there are 3,900 chapters in all the fourteen pre-canons.
The fifth variety of Dṛstivāda is named as Cūlika (Appendices). It has five varieties as below:
(i)Jalagatā (Water-related Hocuspocus) : It describes incantations and rituals related with movement in water and stopping of water flow etc.
(ii)Sthalagatā (Land-related Hocuspocus): It describes incantations and rituals related with entry into mountains like Mem and six principal mountains (Kulacāla) and quick movement on land etc.
(iii)Mayāgatā : It describes incantations and rituals related with jugglery and trickery.
(iv)Akāṡagatā : It describes incantations and rituals related with space-movement etc.
(v)Rūpagatā (Shape-related Hocuspocus): It describes the incantations and rituals related with different types of personation like lion, tiger etc.
All these five appendices have a total number of padas as equal to 10,49,46,000. On addition of all these padas of the above texts, they turn out to be 1,12,83,58,005 as stated earlier.
After describing the twelve limbs of primarys scriptures (Angas), the secondary scriptures
(Angabahyas) are being described:
(i)Sāmāyika (Equanimity Practice): It describes the development of dispassionation and equalitarian nature and the practices leading towards this goal.
(ii)Caturvinṡati-stava (Hymns of Twenty four): It describes the hymns of the twenty four Tīrthankaras and process of ritualisation of offering hymns.
(iii)Vandanā (Veneration): It is a text describing the veneration or offering of respect to the five-kinds of Supreme souls (Parameṣthis).
(iv)Pratikramaṇa (Penitential Retreat): It is a miscellaneous text describing the process of undertaking daily, fortnightly and monthly etc. penitential retreat and its recital.
(v)Vainayika (Reverence): This text describes in detail the various kinds of reverences of faith, conation, head-saints and their formal observance (Upacāra).
(vi)Kṛtikarma (Reverential conduct) : This text describes the regular reverential and venerational duties for the saints and votaries while offering veneration to the Jinas, Liberated, Head-saints and Preceptors.
(vii)Daṡa Vaikālika (Decad of Untimed study): This text describes the details of edible materials and the various steps of food-intake process for the saints through ten chapters named as Drava, Puṣpita etc.
(viii)Uttarādhyayana : This text describes the methods of bearing the inflictions and afflictions.
(ix)Kalpa-vyavahāra (Text on Monastic Offences and Expiations): This text deals with the expiations etc. to be awarded for violating monastic conduct in various forms.
(x)Kalpā-kalpa (Permissible and Prohibited Conduct): This text describes the proper and non-proper conduct of saints and votaries.
(xi)Mahā-kalpya (Great Times for Permissibles): This text describes the proper period of initiation, education, group-protection and holy death etc.
(xii)Pundarīka : This text describes the austerities etc. which lead to take birth as mansionaletc. celestials.
(xiii)Maha-pundarika : This text describes the austerities etc. which may lead to birth as goodesses among the mansional etc. celestials.
(xiv)Niṣiddhikā (Prohibitory Disciplines) : This text describes about the awards of expiations for major or minor (spiritual) offences according to the body-structure and physical strength etc.
Thus, the description of Primary and Secondary canonical scriptures is completed.
Organ of Knowledge of Direct Perception (Pratyaksa Pramāna)
The organ of knowledge of Direct perception is the immediate-cum-lucid knowledge.
It has two varieties :
| (1) partial direct perception | (2) total direct perception |
The partial direct perception has two varieties :
| (i) clairvoyance or limiting knowledge | (ii) mind-reading knowledge |
In contrast, the total direct perception has only one variety of absolute knowledge or omniscience.
Clairvoyance:
It is the knowledge of tangible entities situated in the limit with respect to substantivity, location, time and mode.
It has three varieties:
| (i) Partial Clairvoyance (Deṡāvadhi) | (ii)Supreme Clairvoyance (Paramāvadhi) |
| (iii) Total Clairvoyance (Sarvāvadhi) |
The partial clairvoyance is possessed by deities and internals and is birth-based. The clairvoyance occuring due to karmic destmction-cum-subsidence is possessed by human and sub-human beings. This is attribute-based.
This kind of clairvoyance may also be possessed by the non-restrained right- faithed and partially restrained beings. The supreme and total types of clairvoyance is possessed by the ascetics who are ultimate-bodied and liberating in the present birth.
Mind-reading Knowledge :
The mind-reading knowledge is the knowledge occurring due to the desctruction-cum-subsidence of mind-reading knowledge-obscuring and potency- obstructing karmas. This knowledge cognises the mentally thought entities within the area of Mānuṣottara mountain (beyond which the human beings can not go).
It has two varieties :
| (i)Simple (Ṛjumati) | (ii) Complex (Vipulamati) |
The knowledge cognising the entities of simple mind, speech and body is the simple mind-reading. In contrast, the complex mind-reading cognises the entities in the complex mind, speech and body. The simple mind-reading can get away with. However, the complex mindreading does not get away. It occurs in the ultimate-bodied living beings only.
In general, the mind-reading knowledge is possessed only by the restrained saint who has accomplished at least one prodigy and who has a higher stage of conduct.
Absolute knowledge or Omniscience :
The omniscience cognises all the entities of the world occurring in all the three times simultaneously. The omniscience is like a mirror in which all the occupied and unoccupied universe is simultaneously reflected.
Alternative Varieties of Organs of Knowledge:
In logical texts, there is some difference with respect to the varieties of organs of knowledge.
There are two kinds of organs of knowledge :
| (1) Direct perception (Pratyakṣa) | (2) Indirect perception (Parokṣa) |
Kinds of Direct Perception :
The direct perception has two varieties :
- (1) Conventional sense-based direct perception (Sāmvyāvahārika), and
- (2) Non-sensory direct perception (Pāramārthika).
The sensory knowledge arising through the instmmentality of senses and mind is the conventional direct perceptions. It is observed in worldly ways and people say, “I have seen by my eye, heard clearly by my ear’ etc. This is the expression of perceptibilities.
Hence, this type of sensory perception is called conventional direct perception, However, in reality, this type of knowledge is indirect only as it requires the assistance of senses and mind. Therefore, it is indirect due to dependence on other factors. This sensory knowledge has been stated to be of 336 kinds as pointed out earlier.
The soul-based non-sensory or transcendental perception has two varieties :
| (1) Deficient (Vikala) | (2) Total (Sakala) |
The knowledges of clairvoyance and mind-reading are deficient direct knowledges while the omniscience is the total direct knowledge.
Kinds of Indirect Perception :
The organ of knowledge of indirect perception has five varieties :
| (1) Memory or recollection (Smriti) | (2) Recognition (Pratyabhijnāna) |
| (3) Inductive reasoning (Tarka) | (4) Inference (Anumāna) |
| (5) Scriptural testimony (Agama) |
(1)Recollection (Smriti) : The recollection is the knowledge in the form of pronoun, ‘that’. For example- ‘that is Devadatta’.
(2)Recognition (Pratyabhijnāna):
The recognition is the knowledge which is a combined or collective form of direct perception and recollection. It is exemplified by, ‘This is the same’, ‘it is not like that’ etc.
It has got four varieties :
| (i) Same (Ekatva) | (ii) Similar (Sādrṡya) |
| (iii) Dis-similar (Vilakṣaṇa) | (iv) Different (Pratiyogī) |
or rival (i.e. this is different from that).
(3)Inductive Reasoning (Tarka):
The knowledge of universal concomitance conditioned by observation and non-observation is known as inductive reasoning. The universal con comm i ttance is the fact that the probandum could be there on a definite probans and it may not be there in its absence. For example, there is definiteness of smoke in the presence of fire and it is not there in the absence of fire.
(4)Inference (Anumāna):
It is the knowledge of the probandum (Sādhya, Pakṣa Thesis) on the strength of probans (reason, sādhana, hetu). The probans is defined as that which has a concommitant relationship with the probandum. The probandum is defined as that entity which is intended to be proved, unproved before and incapable of being contradicted. The probandum or thesis is the statement of the substantive and the attribute.
The Jaina scholars have admitted only two main factors of inference – Thesis or probandum and reason or probans. They have also admitted five factors for the benefit of the dull disciples. They are thesis (pratijnā), reason (hetu), illustration (dṛṣtānta), application (upanaya) and deduction or conclusion (Nigamana).11
(5)Scriptures or Verbal Testimony (Agama):
The knowledge of entities through the words of the attained ones is known as verbal testimony or scriptures. For example, ‘There is Mem mountain etc.’ In scriptural texts (Siddhānta Granthas), the vocable knowledge has been admitted as indirect organ of knowledge. While in the logic texts (Nyāya Granthas) also, the same has been admitted as verbal testimony or scriptures i.e. Agama Pramāṇa.
Thus, we have described the topic on organs of knowledge based on scriptural and logic texts.
