Jainism Under The Cholas
The Cholas emerged into the political arena of Tamilnadu in the middle of the 9th century A.D. and continued to wield power till the end of the 13th century A.D. Under the rule of imperial monarchs like Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, the kingdom reached the heights of excellence in the fields of religion, art, architecture, administration, trade, commerce, etc.
The rulers of the Chola dynasty were all devout followers of Saivism. But their unsullied devotion to Siva and unflinching patronage to Saivism had not curtailed the growth of other religions, particularly Jainism.
K.A.Nilakanta Sastri rightly observed that “Jainism had a fair following and enjoyed the patronage of princes and people, though not to the same extent as the orthodox creeds”1 Infact, a systematic study of the Jaina epigraphs and monuments of the Cholas would reveal the ascendancy of Jaina religion and proliferation of its temples.
CAVE TEMPLES AND ROCK-CUT SCULPTURES
The Cholas’ rule, as of early times, also witnessed occupation of natural caves by recluses of the Jaina order. Such cave shelters are found in places like Anantamangalam, Atchippakkam, Melkudalur, Valatti, Pudukkalani, Tondur Cholavandipuram etc.
Most of these caverns were carved with fine rock-cut sculptures46of Tirthankaras and their attendants. Provisions were made for the worship of these images and lighting of lamps in front of them. Members of the Jaina community made liberal land grants for the sustenance of the resident monks and the maintenance of the temples.
Melkudalur near Gingee has a natural cave containing more than thirty five stone beds cut at different places. The central part has a raised platform which should have been occupied by the chief of the monks while expounding Jaina principles to his disciples. A fine sculpture of Parsvanatha, executed in the 9th century style, is seen on the northern side of the cave.2
Tondur, also near Gingee, has a cave temple with an image of Parsvanatha carved on its over-hanging rock. In the 10’h century A.D. it was known as Valuvamolipperumpalli and was looked after by the monk Vajrasinga Ham Perumanadigal. It was to this establishment Vinnakovaraiyan, the Bana feudatory of Parantaka I, gifted the village Gunanerimangalam together with some lands in Tondur.3
Cholavandipuram is yet another 10th century Jaina centre where the interior of a cave shelter accommodates beautiful sculptures of Gommatesvara, Parsvanatha and Ambika yakshi. The cave shelter was modeled in the form of a temple by a Ganga Chieftain. It was to the same temple, Siddhavadavan, the Malayaman vassal of Gandaraditya, granted the village Panaippadi in 952 A.D. for the conduct of worship to the images.4
Anantamangalam near Tindivanam has a small cavern known as Jinagiripalli which was looked after by one Vinayabhasurakuravadigal.
The over-hanging rock of the cavern contains two groups of sculptures representing Parsvanatha flanked by Dharanendra and Padmavati on one side and Ambika, Ananthanatha and Parsvanatha on the other-all executed in the Chola style of the 10th century A.D. One Vardhamana Periyadigal gifted 5 kalanju of gold for feeding an asetic daily in the palli during the reign of Parantaka I (942 A.D).5
47
Atchippakkam, also near Tindivanam, throbbed with Jaina activities in the 9th-10th century A.D. The space between two huge boulders at the top of the hillock served as the abode of monks. The boulder at the summit was modeled to accommodate an exquisite image of Parsvanatha attended by Dharanendra and Padmavati.
Valatti and Pudukkalani, both in the Viluppuram district, are other centres having natural caverns and darsanabimbas of Parsvanatha carved on the over-hanging rocks of the shelters. The sculptures exhibit the 10th century style of the Cholas.
Ammachatram in Pudukkottai district became a Jaina centre in the 10th century A.D.6 Monks of the Jaina order occupied some of the natural caverns in the local hill.. These resorts were also provided with sculptural depictions of Tirthankaras, particularly on the over-hanging rocks.
Thus, several isolated caves all over Tamilnadu became holy abodes of the Sramanas in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. These establishments continued to flourish with the support of the ruling class as well as the common man.
II STRUCTURAL TEMPLES
Independent temples dedicated to Tirthankaras were also built in various parts of the Chola empire. Among them, the temples atMelchittamur,Tirunarungondai,Tirumalai, Puduppedu, Salukki, Perumandur, Saravananpedu, Kovilangulam, etc., deserve special mention.
Besides, most of the already existing edifices were either renovated or enlarged during the rule of the Cholas. The economy of these temples became strong due to the large number of land grants and other gifts made by the wealthy sections of the Jaina community.
MELCHITTAMUR TEMPLES
Melchittamur, situated 18 km. east of Gingee, is one of the reputed Jaina centres of the Digambara sect in Tamilnadu. There
48 are two temples in the village, one the Malainatha temple enshrining an oblong panel representing Gommatesvara, Parsvanatha, Adinatha, Mahavira and Ambika and the other a huge structural edifice, dedicated to Parsva Tirthankara. The former came into existence during the reign of Aditya Chola I.
At that time, the temple had a small shrine accommodating the sculptured panel carved on a boulder and a front mandapa. In the 11 regional year of Aditya I (888 A.D.), a native of Cholanadu made some grants for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple.7 Sometimes later the endowment was discontinued for reasons unknown to us.
Therefore, it was revived and perpetuated by Kadavarkonpavai, the queen of Aditya I.8 This early Chola temple lost its original style of architecture consequent to extensive renovations and repairs.
However, the magnificent sculptures carved on the boulder inside the sanctum, exhibiting the typical early Chola style of the 9th century A.D. along with Kadavarkonpavai’s record engraved underneath, remain unaffected even to the present day.
The same temple received a gift of 4 ma of land and some houses-sites from Sengeni Ammaiappan, the Sambuvaraya vassal of Rajadhiraja II, in 1173 A.D.9
The Parsvanatha temple was built a little away from the Malainatha temple in the 12lh century A.D., when the village became a stronghold of the Jains. In the year 1136 A.D. Vikrama Chola made a sarvamanya gift of 3 ma of land each in about 25 villages.10 During the time of Kulottunga II (1148 A.D.), the whole village Chittamur was granted as dirgamanya to the temple.11
The temple was enlarged and rebuilt in the 19th century A.D. and thereby lost its original architecture. However, the lithic records throw significant light on the patrongage extended by members of the Chola family and their Sambhuvaraya feudatory to the Jaina temples of the places, inspite of their adherence to Saivism.49
APPANDAINATHA TEMPLE
Tirunarungondai, 16 km. north-east of Ulunderet, is yet another scared centre of the Jainas, having a temple dedicated to Parsvanatha and Chandraprabha atop the hill, locally known as Appandainatha temple. The mandapa-type of Parsvanatha shrine was built in the 9lh century A.D., enshrining a low relief of the Tirthankara carved on the western face of a huge boulder.
The figure is flanked by two chamradaris very thinly executed, while the attendant deities do not find place in the composition. The structural addition together with the bas relief came to be known as Melaipalli (western temple).12 The relief sculpture of Parsvanatha and the pillars inside the mandapa exhibit early Chola style of the 9th century A.D.
Simultaneously, the Chandranatha temple having a shrine and a mandapa in front was built by one Vijayanallulan, and was named KUaippalli or eastern temple.13 It was provided with a stone- paved circumambulatory passage and a pillared cloister during later Chola period.
The lithic records found in the temple are replete with references to the provisions made for burning perpetual lamps and for the conduct of worship and festivals. For instance, the wife of an officer of Rajaraja I, reclaimed some lands and gifted them to the temple for the conduct of sribali and aradhana ceremonies.
14 Similarly, for the longitivity and good health of Rajaraja I, his military chief, Mummudi chola Brahmarayan, endowed 10 ma of land.15 King Kulottunga II personally took interest in this temple and endowed the whole of a village, Sirusattanallur, for offerings and worship.16 Kundavai, the elder sister of Rajaraja, was instrumental in digging a lake at this place, which was named Kundavai eri after her.
Majority of the endowments made to the temple was by the Malayaman,. Sediraya and Kadavaraya vassals of the Cholas. Thus, receiving due royal support from the members of the Chola family and their feudal lords, the Appandainatha temple grew into 50a huge temple complex with additional shrines, mandapas and prakara in later times.18
C. TIRUMAL AI-KUNDAVAIJINALAYA
Among the Chola queens, Kundavai remains unparalleled in the religious history of Tamilnadu. Though an ardent devotee of lord Siva, she had been liberal in endowing Hindu and Jaina institutions alike. She is credited with building two Jaina temples, one at Dadapuram and the other at Tirumalai. The former could not withstand the ravages of time and had disappeared completely.
The latter Kundavai Jinalaya exists at the foot of the Tirumalai hill. At the time of its foundation in the 10th century A.D, it was of modest proporation with a shrine and a front mandapa. But consequent to extensive renovations and repairs, it lost the original architectural style. However, the pillars of the interior mandapa and the original image of Neminatha, now kept in the mandapa, bear the best traditions of the Chola workmanship.’9
It was in the same century, the nearby rock-shelter was provided with exquisite bas-reliefs representing Ambika, Bahubali, Parsvanatha, Adinatha and Mahavira to which provisions for lighting perpetual lamps and for offering worship were made.
The colossal image of Neminatha, locally known as Sikhamaninatha measuring 16’ in height, was carved on a huge rock atop the hill in the 12th century A.D. This imposing image is, no doubt, one of the masterpieces of the later Chola art.
The Tirumalai temple complex attracted people from far-flung areas and received munificent grants both from the royal family and the common man. Particularly, the Sambhuvarayas and the Atiaman of Tagadur made valuable contributions to the temple.
20 Still later, several additions in the form of mandapas and minor shrines, besides a new temple dedicated to Mahavira, came into being within the Kundavai Jinalaya complex.
Temples of modest proportion came into existence in places like Puduppedu, Perumandur, Salukki, Saravananpedu and 51 Kovilangulam. The Parsvanatha temple at Puduppedu, near Sriperumpudur, was built in the 10* century A.D. with a small shrine and mandapa.
The superstructure got dilapidated completely and a new structure has been built recently, enshrining the original early Chola specimen of the presiding deity.
The VirakeralaPerumpalli at Salukki near Wandiwash, built during the reign of Rajendra 1,21 does not exist now. However, from its ruins, a number of bronze images representing Tirthankaras and Yakshis have been recovered in recent years.
The Chandranatha temple at Perumandur is yet another 11th century edifice which had its expansion in the subsequent centuries.22 Its originality is retained to the present day at the basal part and in the ardhamandapa even after extensive renovations.
The Parsvanatha temple built at Saravananpedu near Ponneri in the 12th century A.D. is in a very bad state of preservation. An attempt at renovating the temple some fifty years ago, had caused extensive damage to its originality.23
The Jain temple at Kovilangulam near Aruppukkottai was built in 1118 A.D. It is said that twenty five individuals, well- versed in Tamil language, erected a golden shrine for the Jina at this place and presented stone and metallic images of Tirthankara and Yakshi.24 The temple incourse of time got ruined and now only its basement remains.
Ill STRUCTURAL ADDITIONS AND RENOVATIONS
The Chola period also witnessed a series of structural activities in the form of additions, renovations and repairs in a number of Jaina centres. The famous Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikunram of the Pallava origin (6* century A.D.), was rebuilt during the time of Kulottunga I and was renovated subsequently.25
A group of three shrines, collectively known as Trikutabasii, sprang up by the side of the Vardhamana temple in the 12th century A.D. But it had to be repaired and renovated 52
shortly when Vikrama Chola became the king.26 Two more mandapas, the Santimandapa and the south eastern mandapa were added to the temple complex during the reign of Rajaraj III (1236 A.D.)27
The Rishabhanatha temple at Perumandur was considerably enlarged in 1192 A.D. by Rajaraja Sambhuvaraya, a vassal of Kulottunga III, who also specially erected a shrine for Ambika yakshi and endowed 2000 kuli of land for the worship of the Yakshi consecrated by him.28
The Pushpanatha temple at Tingalur was added with a mukhamcmdapa in 1045 A.D.29 Many other temples as at Vidur, Tirakkol, Sempattur etc., had also undergone some change in their structural form during the rule of the Cholas, but they remain uncorroborated by epigraphical evidence.
IV JAINA TEMPLES NAMED AFTER CHOLA KINGS
Several Jaina temples in medieval times were named after the Chola monarchs. Even though most of them do not exist now, their names and the endowments made to them find place in some epigraphical records. The Jaina temple at Pallichchandal which came into existence in the 10lh century A.D. was known as Gandaradittyapperumpalli,30 named so after Gandaraditya Chola.
The Kunthunatha temple at Karantai, after its complete renovation during the time of Virarajendra, bore the name Virar ajendrapperumpalli.31
The Thanjavur area also had a number of temples bearing names of the Chola rulers. Such pallis existed in places like Pallankoil, Avarani and Kuhur. The Pallankoil temple built in the 10″‘ century A.D. was known as SundaraCholapperumpalli.32 The one at Kuhur bore the name Kulottunga Cholapperumpalli;12 named after Kulottunga I.
Besides temples such as Gangarulappalli, Sedikulamanikkapperiunpalli and53Chittiralekaipperumappalli are known to have existed at Maruttuvakkudi and Avarani respectively.
It is not definitely known whether these temples were constructed at the instance of the Chola kings or mearly named in honour of them. But one thing is certain that the Chola monarchs had been generous towards the Jaina sect, otherwise, these temples would not have been named after them.
V. SCULTPURES AND BRONZES
Hindu temples of the Chola period are veritable museums of sculptures in stone and metal, exhibiting the maturity of icono- plastic art in its subtle form. They are distinguished by their style, simplicity and grandeur.
The Jaina temples also possess a large number of beautiful sculptures and bronze images of Tirthankaras and their attendant deities. It would be sufficient here to present only some select specimens to illustrate the best traditions of the Chola art.
The ruined Jaina temple at Chettippatti near Pudukkottai contains loose sculptures of Mahavira, Parsvanatha, Chauri- bearers etc. Among them, the figure of Mahavira and the head of Parsvanatha are note worthy.
Mahavira is shown seated on a pedestal in dhyana posture, but without the usual creeper design, prabhavali and triple umbrella. The head of Parsvanatha is an exquisite 10th century specimen of early Chola workmanship having a smiling countenance, half-closed eyes, curly hair arranged in small circles, prominent nose and an elegant canopy of fivehooded serpent above the head.
A fine sculpture of Ambika y akshi with the lion mount carved at her foot level, is brought to light from Sempattur, near Pudukkottai. It was caused to be made by an official of Rajaraja I in the 10th century A.D.35
The National Museum, New Delhi, possesses an image of Parsvanatha portraying Chola stylistic features of the 10th century A.D. In this piece of art, apart from the usual decorative elements,54 Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi are shown in the natural fashion with pearls dropping from them, on either side of the Jiñas shoulders. It is an interesting feature which does not occur very frequently except South India.36
The Appandainatha temple at Tirunarungondai contains a beautiful icon representing Rishabhanatha which is believed to have been brought from a nearby village. The deity is shown seated in dhyana posture, with massive body, broad shoulders, half-closed eyes, prominent nose etc.
Stylistically, it is assigned to the 10th century A.D.37 The same temple also has Chola sculptures representing Mahavira and Mallinatha, but they belong to the 12th century A.D.
Exquisite specimens of Chola workmanship depicting Parsvanatha and Bahubali find place in the Kunthunatha temple at Karantai. The image of Pars vade va stands in kayotsarga pose canopied by a five-hooded serpent.
It was known as Tirumerrisaiyan or west facing deity, to whom a gift of 300 kasus was made during the reign of Rajaraja III.38 The Bahubali icon also bears the 11th century art idiom and stands majestically, unmoved by mundane activities. Creepers are seen entwining his legs. Jatas are shown on either side of the shoulders which feature is rarely metwith in Tamilnadu.39
Bronze images of Jaina deities are found in places like Tirunarungondai, Tindivanam, Polur, Singanikuppam, Salukki, Kindangil andTiruppalapandal. Among them, the Tirunarungondai and Singanikuppam icons deserve special mention.
There are two bronze images of Ambika in the Tirunarungondai temple, one datable to the 11th century and the other to the 12th century. The first image of the goddess stands gracefully on a lotus pedestal, accompanied by her lady attendant and son. She wears ornaments like karandamakuta, patrakundalas, haras, keyuras and kankanas.
The master craftsman has given life to her by providing a smiling countenance, descending breasts, attenuated hip and folds on the abdomenal region. Her right hand holds a lotus flower while the left hangs down in lolahasta. The other figures from Tirunarungondai, and Singanikuppam representing the same
55 goddess also possess grace and charm as seen in the former specimen. The Chandranatha icon from Tirunarungondai, Adinatha from Singanikuppam and Gidangil, and Mahavira from Polur depict the last phase of Chola art.
Some points of political and religious significance emerge by a study of the Jaina monuments and their epigraphs. First of all, the Chola monarchs pursued a policy of religious toleration and gave fair treatment to Jainism, inspite of their avowed adherence to Saivism.
40 Some of them evienced interest in promoting the Jaina institutions by making land grants and at times by rebuilding or renovating them. Their feudal chieftains also actively supported the Jaina creed and made rich endowments to temples.
Among the queens of Chola extraction, Kundavai is credited with building Jinalayas at Tirumalai and Dadapuram. Kadavarkonapavai, the queen of Aditya I, revived an endowment made to the Chittamur temple. The members of the Jaina community also contributed their mite in several ways.
The early phase of Chola rule witnessed the growth of cave temples which were confined mainly to hilly region. Rock-cut sculptures depicting Tirthankaras and their attendant deities, particularly yakshis, carved on either the overhanging rock or nearby boulder, became a regular feature of these cave shelters.
Structural temples on the other hand, got priority mainly in the later period. They expanded vertically and horizontally in later Chola times.
Architecturally, the Jain temples do not differ very much from their brahmanical counterparts. The salient features of the dravida style of architecture have been faithfully followed in temples of all persuasions. However, the divergence is mainly in the iconographic content that varied according to their affiliations.
Jainism became more accommodative than ever before, absorbing many elements from other creeds and vice versa, and successfully popularized its faith without affecting the core of the religion. It was in this way, Jainism developed and continued to flourish during the Chola period.41
56
REFERENCES
1. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, p.655.
2. See, A.Ekambaranathan & C.K.Sivaprakasam, Jaina Inscriptions in Tamilnadu, pp.363-367.
3. ARE, 83,84/1934-35.
4. Ibid, 251,252/1936-37.
5. Ibid, 450/1922-23.
6. Ibid, 210/1941-42
7. SII, Vol.VII, No.828.
8. A.Ekambaranathan, The History of Chittamur (in Tamil), pp.56-58, SII, Vol.VII, No.830.
9. SII, Vol.VII, No.829.
10. SITI, Vol. VII, No.26.
11. Ibid, Vol.I, No.28.
12. A.Ekambaranathan, The History of Tirunarungondai, (in Tamil), p.32.
13. ARE., 306/1939-40.
14. SII, Vol.VII, No. 1017.
15. Ibid, No. 1015.
16. SITI., Vol.I, No.71.
17. ARE., 310/1939-40.
18. Ibid., 310,311, 317/1939-40.
19. A.Ekambaranathan, Tirumalai and its Jaina Temples, (in Tamil), p.65
20. ARE, 85,87,89,90/1887.
57
21. SITI, Vol.L, No. 123.
22. A.Ekambaranathan, Jaina temples of Tondainadu,
(in Tamil), pp.155-156.
23. Ibid.,, pp. 160-162.
24. ARE, 397/1914.
25. Ibid, 382/1928-29, 99/1923.
26. Ibid, 99/1923
27. SII, Vol.IV, No.363.
28. ARE, 221/1902.
29. Epi.Ind., Yol.30, pp.243-246.
30. ARE, 448/1937-38.
31. Ibid, 141/19339-40.
32. Ibid, A-29/1961-62
33. Ibid, 288/1917
34. Ibid,392/1907,487/1922.
35. A Manual of Pudukkottai State, Vol.II, p.995.
36. C.Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art, Plate 13.
37. A.Ekambaranathan, The History of Tirunarungondai, (in Tamil), p.44.
38. ARE., 141/1939-40.
39. A.Ekambaranathan, Jaina Temples of Tondainadu,
(in Tamil), pp.120-121.
40. P.B.Desai, Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, p.83.
41. Ibid., pp.83-84.
