Description of the Standpoints (Nayas)
The standpoints are defined as the devices to leam the characteristics of the object in part which has been known in full through the organs of knowledge.12
Nine kinds of Standpoint :
There are nine kinds of standpoint:
| (1)Substantive (Dravyārthika) | (2)Modal (Paryāyārthika) |
| (3)Figurative (Naigama) | (4)Collective standpoint (Sangraha |
| (5)Practical or Empirical standpoint (Vyavahāra) | (6)Straightforward standpoint (Ṛjusūtra) |
| (7)Verbal standpoint (Ṡabda) | (8)Conventional standpoint (Samabhirūdha) |
| (9)Actualistic standpoint (Evambhūta) |
(1) The substantive standpoint: It deals with the substance (in general) only. It has ten varieties as below:
(i)The pure substantive standpoint: It is devoid of karmic attachment. For example, ‘the worldly beings (souls) are pure like the liberated ones.’
(ii)The existence-grasping (Sattā grāhaka) pure substantive standpoint: It can be exemplified by the point, ‘the living being (soul) is permanent.’
(iii)Non-differential-concept-related (Bheda kalpanā Nirpekṣa) pure substantive standpoint: It can be exemplified by the statement, ‘the reality (dravya) is non-different from its attributes and modes as it is in that form only.’
(iv)Karmic-attachment-related (Karmopādhi Sāpekṣa) impure substantive standpoint: It can be exemplified by the statement, ‘the soul is in the form of volitions like anger etc. because of karmic fruitions.’
(v)Origination-cum-decay-related (Utpāda-Vyaya Sāpekṣa) impure substantive standpoint: It can be exemplified by the statement, ‘the reality (dravya) has origination, decay and permanence at the same time. ’
(vi)Differentiation-concept-related (Bheda Kalpanā Sāpekṣa) impure subsantive standpoint : It can be exemplified by the statement, ‘the knowledge and conation are the attributes of the soul.’
(vii)Affirmational (Anvaya) substantive standpoint : It can be exemplified by the statement of the fact, ‘the reality (dravya) has a nature of attributes and modes.’
(viii)Self-based Tetrad-grasping (Sva-Catuṣtaya-grāhaka) substantive standpoint : It can be exemplified by the statement, ‘the reality (dravya) is in existence with respect to its own substantivity, location, time and mode.’
(ix) Alien-based Tetrad-grasping (Para-Catuṣtaya-grāhaka) substantive standpoint: It can be exemplified by the statement of the fact, ‘the reality is in the form of non-existence with respect to alien substantivity, location, time and mode.’
(x)Alien-volition-grasping (Parabhāva Grāhaka) substantive standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the soul is in the form of knowledge.’
(2) The Modal Standpoint :
It deals with and grasps the modes (paryāyas) of the substances.
It has six varieties :
(i)Eternal-cum-permanent (Anādi Nitya) modal standpoint: For example, “mattergic modes of Mem mountain etc. are eternal.”
(ii)Beginningful-cum-permanent (Sādi Nitya) modal standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the mode of the liberated one is permanent.’
(iii)Origination-cum-decay-grasping (Utpāda-Vyaya Grāhaka) modal standpoint. It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the modes are destroyed every moment.’
(iv)Existence-related (Sattā Sāpekṣa) modal standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the modes have origination, decay and permanence at the same time. ’
(v)Pure modal standpoint irrespective of Alien-attachment (Para Upādhi Nirpekṣa). It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the mode of worldly being is pure like the liberated Lord.’
(vi)Karmic-attachment-related (Karmopādhi Sāpekṣa) impure modal standpoint. It can be illustrated by the statement, ‘the worldly beings have birth and death.’
(3)Figurative Standpoint (Naigama Naya):
This standpoint understands the substance merely by the intention (Sankalpa) or purpose of activities.
It has three varieties
| (i) Past | (ii) Present |
| (iii) Future |
(i)The Past figurative standpoint is that where the present is installed in the past. For example, ‘the Venerable Mahavīra has attained salvation today on the day of Dīpāwalī.’
(ii)The Future figurative standpoint is that where the future is installed in the present. Stating – ‘the Enlightened Venerable as the liberated one’ – is the example of this standpoint.
(iii)The Present figurative standpoint is that where even the commenced act is described as completed. It is the installation of present into the present. It can be exemplified by stating ‘rice is being cooked’ while only the fire is being burnt in the kitchen.
(4)Collective Standpoint:
It is that which comprehends the entities in a collective way (as a group or class). It has two varieties :
| (i) General | (ii) Special |
(i) General collective standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statement like, ‘all the entities are similar and mutually consistent with respect to the reality-ness (dravyatva).
(ii) Special collective standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statement like, ‘all the living beings are similar and mutually consistent with respect to living-ness (jīvatva).’
(5)Empirical Standpoint:
It is defined as to know the reality (dravya) comprehended by the collective standpoint by divisions in accordance with the rule.
It has also two varieties :
| (i)General | (ii) Special |
(i)General empirical standpoint: It is to differentiate the entities grasped by the general collective standpoint.
For example, ‘the reality has two varieties :
| (a) Living | (b) Nonliving |
(ii) Special empirical standpoint: It is to differentiate the entities grasped by the special collective standpoint.
It can be illustrated as the living being has two varieties :
| (a) Worldly being | (b) Liberated being |
(6)Straightforward Standpoint:
It is the standpoint which takes into account (or grasps) the straight or present conditions only.
It has also two varieties :
| (i) Fine (Sūkṣma) | (ii)Gross (sthūla) |
(ii)Gross : The gross straightforward standpoint takes into account the human modes etc. lasting for their full life-span.
(7)Verbal Standpoint:
It is to grasp or learn about an entity through words after removing anomalies due to gender, number, case etc. For example, to grasp the meaning of the words like ‘Dārā’ (masculine gender), ‘Bhāryā’ (feminine gender), and ‘Kalatra’ (Neuter gender) in terms of woman despite having their different genders. They are taken as synonyms.
(8)Conventional Standpoint :
It is the standpoint which grasps the conventional or popular meaning of the word despite several meanings for it. For example, the word ‘go’ (in Sanskṛta) has several meanings like earth, speech, rays, cow etc. Depite this, this standpoint accepts the meaning of ‘cow’ only from the word ‘go’.
(9)Actualistic Standpoint:
It is the standpoint which ascertains an object in its present state or action based on its etymology. For example, to call a ‘go’ (cow) as cow when it is going (go…to move) or moving only, as per its etymology.
Thus, we have 28 standpoints as below :
| (1)Substantive standpoints | (2)Modal standpoints |
| (3)Figurative standpoints | (4)Collective, Empirical and Straightforward standpoints (2 each) 06 |
| (7-9) Verbal, Conventional and Actualistic standpoints (1 each)28 |
This is the brief description of standpoints. In fact, there are as many standpoints as there are statements through words. This description of standpoints is based on ‘Alāpa Paddhati’ and is somewhat more detailed than Tattvārtha-Sūtra or other earlier texts.
Sub-ordinate Standpoints (Upa-nayas)
The subordinate standpoints are the various offshoots of the main standpoints. The prefix ‘upa’ in the term ‘upanaya’ means nearness, proximity or similarity. Thus, subordinate standpoints are nearly or similar to the main standpoints. There are three varieties of these standpoints:
- (1)Self-evident empirical standpoint (Sad-bhūta Vyavahāra naya)
- (2)Non- Self-evident empirical standpoint (A-sad-bhūta Vyavahāra naya)
- (3)FormalisedNon-Self-evident empirical standpoint (Upacarita A-sad-bhūta Vyavahāra naya)
(1)The Self-evident empirical standpoint has two varieties :
(i)Pure Self-evident empirical standpoint: It recognises and takes into account the difference between the pure quality and the qualified (guṇa-guṇī) and the pure mode and the moded (Paryāya-paryāyī). For example, the omniscience and omniconation etc. are the qualities of the liberated ones while the liberatedness etc. are their modes.
(ii)Impure Self-evident empirical standpoint: It recognises and takes into account the difference between the impure quality and the qualified and impure modes and the moded ones.
For example, the sensory knowledge etc. are the qualities of the worldly beings and their being human etc. are their modes.
(2)The non-self-evident empirical standpoint has three varieties :
(i)Own-class-based (Svajāti) non-self-evident empirical standpoint : It can be exemplified as the ultimate atoms (Paramāṇu) are multi-pointed (Bahupradeṡī).
(ii) Alien-class-based (Vijāti) non-self-evident empirical standpoint : It can be exemplified as the sensory knowledge is mattergic (Mūrtika) as it has been originated due to the destruction-cum-subsidence of the sensory knowledge obscuring karma.
(iii) Own and alien class-based non-self-evident empirical standpoint : It can be exemplified as both-the knowable living being and knowable non-living entity have knowledge as all kinds of entities are the objects of knowledge.
(3)The formalised non-self-evident empirical standpoint has also three varieties :
(i)Own-class-based (Svajāti) formalised non-self-evident empirical standpoint: It can be exemplified by statements like “the wife, son, father etc. are mine”.
(ii)Alien-class-based (Vijātiya) formalised non-self-evident empirical standpoint: It can be exemplified by the statements like “the house and clothes etc. are mine”.
(iii)Own and alien class-based formalised non-self-evident empirical standpoint: It can be illustrated by the statements like “the country, kingdom and fort etc. are mine”.
Thus, eight sub-ordinate standpoints have been admitted as below :
- (1)Varieties of self-evident subordinate standpoint. 02
- (2)Varieties of non-self-evident subordinate standpoint. 03
- (3)Varieties of formalised non-self-evident sub-ordinate standpoint. 03 08
Description of Standpoints on the Basis of Spiritualism
In spiritual language, there are two kinds of standpoints :
| (1) Ideal (niṡcaya) | (2) Practical or Empirical (Vyavahāra) |
The Ideal Standpoint ascertains the entities with nondifferential point of view. In other words, the non-differentiation (Abheda) is its subject. In contrast, the Practical or Empirical Standpoint ascertains the entities with differential point of view. In other words, differentiation (Bheda) is its subject.
There are two kinds of ideal standpoint:
- (1) Pure or Undefiled (Ṡuddha) Ideal Standpoint and
- (2) Impure or Defiled (Aṡuddha) Ideal Standpoint.
The Pure Ideal Standpoint deals with subjects with reference to non-differentiation between the quality (Guṇa) and the qualified (Gum) devoid of karmic attachment. For example, the qualities of omniscience etc. only are the (ideal) living being.
In contrast, the Impure Ideal Standpoint deals with the subjects with reference to karmic attachment. For example, the living being is in the form of sensory knowledge etc.
The Empirical Standpoint also has two varieties :
- (1) Self-evident (Sad-bhūta) empirical standpoint,
- (2) Non-self-evident (A-sad-bhūta) empirical standpoint.
The Self-evident Empirical Standpoint deals with any entity in terms of differentiation.
It has two varieties:
- (a) Formalised (Upacarita) self-evident empircal standpoint,
- (b) Non-formalised (Anupacarita) or natural self-evident standpoint.
The Formalised Self-evident Empirical Standpoint ascertains the quality and the qualified with karmic attachment with respect to differentiation. For example, the qualities of sensory knowledge etc. belong to the living being.
The Non- formalised Self-evident Empirical Standpoint ascertains the difference between the karmically detached qualified and qualities. For example, the qualities of omniscience etc. belong to the living being.
(2) The Non-self-evident Empirical Standpoint deals with varied entities in relation with each other.
It has also two varieties :
- (a) Formalised non-self-evident Empirical Standpoint, and
- (b) Non-formalised non-self-evident empirical standpoint.
The Formalised Non-self-evident Empirical Standpoint takes into account the non-related entity in terms of the related one. For example, the riches of Devadatta. The Non-formalised Non-self-evident Empirical Standpoint takes into account the related entities in terms of the related ones. For example, the body of the living being and so on.
The description of ideal and empirical standpoint is also found in an alternative way as per ‘Ṡāstra-sāra-samuccaya’ The pure ideal standpoint describes the pure part of the entity. For example, the living being lives all the times due to its vitality of consciousness.
The empirical standpoint describes the varied or mixed form of the entities. For example, “the living being lives due to the ten vitalities of 5 senses, 3 strengths, respiration and life-span”.
All the above standpoints are in the form of partial (valid) knowledge. They are true only when they are referred with respect to other standpoints. If they are non-relativistically described, they will be false. It is said,14
“The standpoints which are mutually irrespective of each other, are false. If they are relativistic of each other, they are right or good standpoints. It is only the right standpoints which lead to real knowledge about the entities.”
For example, the substantive standpoint states the living being as permanent while the modal standpoint states it to be non-permanent. If these two standpoints are not relative with each other, the above statements will be false. In fact, substantively, the living being is permanent only as the reality is never destroyed at any time.
The same living being is non-permanent modally, as one observes the loss of the modes of human beings etc. and origination (birth) of the modes of celestials etc. Hence, it is proved that the living being is permanent in some respects and non-permanent in some respects.